This overview contains a choice of publications and initiatives where public values and risks in society and nature meet.
1962
Silent Spring. This sensational book by Rachel Carson warned of the dangers to all natural systems from the misuse of chemical pesticides such as DDT and questioned the scope and direction of modern science, initiating the contemporary environmental movement.
1970
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). This organisation was founded as an independent executive agency of the United States federal government tasked with environmental protection matters. Beginning in the late 1950s and through the 1960s, US Congress reacted to increasing public concern about the impact that human activity could have on the environment.
1971
Mercy Mercy Me (The Ecology). A song by Marvin Gaye is about the big loss of natural values and ecosystems caused by human behaviour.
1972
The Limits to Growth. This report by a group of young scientists at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) commissioned by Aurelio Peccei, founder of The Club of Rome, shook the world. The report excels in system thinking and modelling, and in that, it is more actual than ever.
1974
Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases. This article by Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman describes biases in judgments under uncertainty and reveals three key heuristics. The authors dive deep into the workings of the human brain. A breakthrough article.
1979
INTERFUTURES: Facing the future. Following an initiative by the Government of Japan in May 1975, a major new research project was established within the framework of the OECD to study “the future development of advanced industrial societies in harmony with that of developing countries”. A strong first international approach related to common challenges.
The environment and bilateral development aid. A report by the International Institute for Environment and Development assesses how six bilateral agencies promote sustainable, environmentally sound development and examines the constraints to improved environmental performance. It is the first in its class to focus on the behaviour of organisations related to the environment.
1983
Comparative risk analysis of technological hazards. A review by Robert W. Kates and Jeanne X. Kasperson on trends in the evolution of technology, the identification of hazard, the perception of risk, and the activities of society and how they have spawned an interdisciplinary quasi profession with new terminology, methodology, and literature. A review of 54 English-language monographs and book-length collections, published between 1970 and 1983.
1985
COSO. The Treadway Commission’s Committee of Sponsoring Organizations (COSO) developed this integrated Internal Control Framework. COSO began as a result of a number of accounting scandals in the 1970s and mid-1980s.
1987
Brundtland Report Our Common Future. This is the first explicitly common reference to sustainable development by the United Nations. In 1987, the need to cooperate on this was high. Gro Harlem Brundlandt: “After a decade and a half of a standstill or even deterioration in global co-operation, I believe the time has come for higher expectations, for common goals pursued together, for an increased political will to address our common future.”
1989
Back to the Future. Prospective hindsight involves generating an explanation for a future event as if it had already happened. This approach by Deborah Mitchell, Edward Russo, and Nancy Pennington involves going forward in time and then looking back. The research found that imagining that an event has already occurred increases the ability to correctly identify reasons for future outcomes by 30%. This is groundbreaking research.
1992
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. The framework has near-universal membership. The 198 countries ratified the Convention are called Parties to the Convention. The ultimate aim of the UNFCCC is to prevent “dangerous” human interference with the climate system.
Cadbury Report. This groundbreaking report – chaired by Sir Adrian Cadbury – led to improvements in governance standards. It was a reaction to the Bank of Credit and Commerce International scandal in 1991.
Agenda 21 is a voluntary action plan developed by the United Nations and national governments at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. At the Summit, governmental leaders worldwide agreed on the need to become more sustainable—to meet today’s needs without sacrificing our future.
1995
Risk. A book by John Adams. The theory of risk compensation postulates that we all come equipped with “risk thermostats” and suggests that safety interventions that do not affect the setting of the thermostat are likely to be frustrated by behavioural responses that reassert the level of risk with which people were originally content. My research had noted that there were large variations in the settings of individual thermostats, but had little to say about why this should be so.
Creating Public Value. Public Value is a theory for public management advanced by Professor Mark Moore of the Harvard Kennedy School. Over the previous two decades, staff and students at Harvard’s Kennedy School of Government, where Moore taught, engaged in conversations about producing excellence in public management.
1997
The Kyoto Protocol. Owing to a complex ratification process, it currently has 192 Parties. The treaty follows the main principles agreed upon in the 1992 convention. It operationalizes the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change by committing industrialized countries and economies in transition to limit and reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in accordance with agreed-upon individual targets.
1999
Sources of Power. Gary Klein’s book is about how people make decisions. He developed the naturalistic decision-making approach, which views people as inherently skilled and experienced. It documents human strengths and capabilities that have been downplayed or ignored so far.
2000
Millennium Development Goals. A way to improve global governance of society and nature’s public domain to pursue goals on global public policy issues. The United Nations set the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in 2000. They were the first attempt to formulate global targets and are the predecessors of the Sustainable Development Goals SDGs.
Common Assessment Framework (CAF). This is a total quality management tool inspired by the Excellence Model of the European Foundation for Quality Management (EFQM) and the model of the German University of Administrative Sciences in Speyer.
2001
Managing the Unexpected. One of the significant challenges any business or organisation can face is dealing with the unexpected. How do you organise for high performance in a setting with overwhelming potential for error and disaster? In this book, Karl Weick and Kathleen Sutcliffe look for the answer to high-reliability organisations (HROs)—aircraft carriers, nuclear power plants, firefighting crews, and others.
Nørby Committee’s Report on Corporate Governance in Denmark. Following the release of the Cadbury report in 1992, Denmark formulated its recommendations for good corporate governance. The report emulates the recommendation to integrate risk management into good governance.
2002
Risk and Reason. This book by Cas Sunstein presents a sensible system for reducing risks to save lives and money. Risks to safety, health, and the environment are intensely interesting. The author explains the sources of these problems and explores what can be done about them.
2003
The Dutch corporate governance code. The Corporate Governance Committee has drawn up this code. It applies to all companies whose registered office is in the Netherlands and whose shares or depositary receipts for shares are officially listed on a government-recognised stock exchange.
Emerging Systemic Risks in the 21st Century. This report by the OECD explores the implications of emerging risks for the economy and society in the 21st century and the vulnerability of major systems. Health services, transport, energy, food and water supplies, and information and telecommunications are all sectors with vital systems that can be severely damaged by a single catastrophic event or chain of events. It is the first focused report in its class.
2005
Risk Governance towards an integrative approach. The International Risk Governance Council (IRGC) publishes a white paper on an integrated analytic framework for risk governance that integrates scientific, economic, social, and cultural aspects.
Public values and risks in Strasbourg. On April 1, the Executive Committee of UDITE, the network of local government Chief Executives across Europe, launched the ‘public risk management’ concept. City managers from all over Europe welcomed this newly presented approach.
Global Risks to the Business Environment. In January, the World Economic Forum published its report, reviewing major global risks facing business leaders today and examining how those risks differ from past challenges.
2006
An Inconvenient Truth. In his best-selling book, former Vice President Al Gore argues against the climate crisis and argues that it is imperative that we solve it.
Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change. This independent review, commissioned by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, who reports to both the Chancellor and the Prime Minister, contributes to assessing the evidence and building an understanding of the economics of climate change. A report with high impact due to the confronting facts.
Global Risks Report 2006. This report brings a more sophisticated understanding of global risks. It was published in collaboration with the World Economic Forum, Marsh & McLennan Companies, Merrill Lynch, Swiss Re and Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania. It is, in fact, the first Global Risks Report.
2007
A brief history of public risk management. It certainly is true that governments have practiced risk management, in a general sense of the term, for thousands of years. Ancient cities that built walls to keep out invaders were practicing an elementary (but sound) form of risk management. Indeed, risk management is a fundamental purpose of government – government is, to a considerable degree, risk management. Further, there are numerous activities in the public sector that can be characterized as risk management (immunization programs, defense policy), but which are entwined with other functions of government. An essay by Finn Kjaer Jensen.
Risk Management: It’s Not Rocket Science – It’s Much More Complicated. In popular imagination, rocket science is the totemic example of scientific complexity. As Britain’s leading academic expert on risk, I will argue here that risk management is in fact much more complex. To put it another way, the scientist studying turbulence “the clouds do not react to what the weatherman or physicist says about them”. The risk manager must, however, deal not only with risk perceived through science, but also with virtual risk – risks where the science is inconclusive and people are thus “liberated to argue from, and act upon, pre-established beliefs, convictions, prejudices and superstitions.” An essay by John Adams.
Premortem. Gary Klein’s book focuses on a management approach to improving project effectiveness. According to the author, too many people are reluctant to speak up about their reservations during the all-important planning phase. By making it safe for dissenters who are knowledgeable about the undertaking and worried about its weaknesses to speak up, you can improve a project’s chances of success.
The new Danish guide on Risk Leadership. PRIMO Danmark launched its national guide on (public) risk management in January. The guide was endorsed by the Danish Minister of Interior, Lars Løkke Rasmussen: “I would argue that the public sector as well should include risk management as a natural part of good public governance”.
The PRIMO Risk Management Award was launched in 2007 by the PRIMO Europe board to recognise the efforts and standards being achieved across our cities and regions in creating and implementing risk management mechanisms for safer and more efficient environments.
2008
Thinking in Systems. In the years following her role as the lead author of Limits to Growth, Donella Meadows remained a pioneer of environmental and social analysis until her untimely death in 2001. This concise and crucial book offers insight into problem-solving from personal to global scales.
Uncertain Safety. Given the vulnerability of humans, society, and the natural environment, a proactive approach to uncertainties is required. A precautionary approach will create new responsibilities for the government, the private sector, consumers, and new activities. In this report, the Dutch Scientific Council for Government Policy recommends inserting the new precautionary principle in the Constitution.
2009
Systems Thinking for Curious Managers, This gem of a book introduces the extraordinary world of systems thinking and its ‘Dean’, Russell L. Ackoff, to curious and enquiring managers, teachers, business people – anyone, anywhere who works in an organisation.
ISO 31000. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in Genève started developing a guidance standard on risk management in 2005. The standard gives generic guidelines for the principles and adequate implementation of risk management. It is not intended for certification purposes.
Flying start PRIMO Vlaanderen. This new association is preparing for a promotional campaign immediately after the summer period. We recently gave an initial presentation about PRIMO Flanders during a seminar organised by AXA on adequate prevention policies in our local authorities, compared to what already exists in various companies.
The Darlington Borough Council received the PRIMO Risk Management Award 2009. The borough’s approach demonstrates a holistic view of public values and their risks and government services to citizens. It links the government to its partners, is excellent at working, and is highly effective in delivering success. In Darlington, an innovative model has proved popular and introduced a common approach to managing risk within the Authority and all partnerships. It has also raised the risk management profile within the decision-making process for partnerships and improved service delivery.
The Financial Crisis. Partnership risk is seen as one of the main risks by Public Entities in the Risk Survey Marsh and PRIMO Europe conducted in the third quarter of 2009. The survey shows that 59% of participants rate partnership risk significant, a similar amount as for public liability and business continuity risks. All over Europe, unsuccessful projects have increased by the downturn. As a result the number of transactions and the total value has gone down. An essay by Phillippe Auzimour and Sabrina Boshuizen.
2010
Seizing the Day. The impact of the global financial crisis on cities and local public services: the ‘Great Recession’ has had a dramatic impact on the financial services sector and other areas of the private sector and highlighted the importance of the role of government at international and national levels in addressing global and systemic risks.
2011
Public Governance. The term ‘governance’ has been used in political science to describe the multitude of actors and processes that lead to collective binding decisions. The term ‘risk governance’ involves the translation of the substance and core principles of governance to the context of risk‐related decision‐making. Does it involve a major change on how risks are conceptualized, managed, and communicated, or it is just a new fashion? A scientific essay by Marjolein van Asselt and Ortwin Renn.
2012
Kaleidscope is an internationally developed education program designed for a holistic and dialogue-oriented approach to public risk. Discussing relevant themes as cybersecurity, social cohesion, city management, adaptation to climate change, proper water management and synergy through partnership and getting familiar with the best concepts, methods and techniques to manage risk and learning from the authoritative scientists and practitioners. The program provides insight into how public values and risks intersect, as well as how to design effective governance mechanisms. The education program consists of three main perspectives and is offered in a modular format with capita selecta.
Fukushima Report. The evaluation of the Fukushima Daichii nuclear disaster in 2011, which was caused by an earthquake followed by a tsunami, is a good example of zooming out from a disaster and learning the lessons. It is a true example of self-reflection because it digs deep into the public ecosystem where government, business, and civic society meet. It is a form of network analysis. The disaster had a major impact on the natural environment and ecosystems. The disaster shocked the entire world.
Cooperation PRIMO Europe and UDITE 2013-2014. The presidents of both associations, Jack Kruf and Eulalio Ávila Cano, present the objectives of the cooperation and sign the contract in Brussels. It is clear that further cooperation on administrative issues is necessary in order to provide the European network of municipal secretaries with practical solutions. Knowledge exchange and dialogue are crucial. Specific attention will be paid to public-private partnerships.
Risk Culture: Under the Microscope Guidance for Boards. This document summarises the Institute of Risk Management’s approach to risk culture for board-level employees. It analyses elements contributing to behaviour within organisations that are related to risks.
2013
Thinking Fast and Slow. In this fascinating Daniel Kahneman treatise by a giant in the field of decision research, the mind is a hilariously muddled compromise between incompatible modes of thought. All the factors described play a direct and indirect role in public governance. Public leaders and managers should be aware of the thoroughly described systems of our brains and behaviour. They make things clear and understandable. The book is an epiphany.
If Mayors Ruled the World. The world’s nations seem paralysed by the challenges of our time—climate change, terrorism, poverty, and the trafficking of drugs, guns, and people. The problems are too big, entrenched, and divisive for the nation-state. Is the nation-state, once democracy’s best hope, dysfunctional and obsolete today? According to Benjamin R. Barber, author of this book, the answer is yes.
100 Resilient Cities. The 100 Resilient Cities (100RC) initiative was pioneered by The Rockefeller Foundation this year as part of its Global Centennial Initiative. The initiative was built on a substantial investment from The Rockefeller Foundation, which enabled cities to hire a Chief Resilience Officer (CRO), develop a resilience strategy, access pro bono services from private sector and NGO partners, and share ideas, innovation and knowledge through the global network of CROs.
Think Tank ‘From Global to Local’. Gérard Combe and Jack Kruf, board members of the international PRIMO Europe association, coined the idea of bringing global developments to local governments through a think tank concept. It has become a common project with UDiTE yearly.
2014
Simpler. Governments everywhere are undergoing a quiet and profound revolution: they’re getting simpler, more cost-effective, and focused on improved outcomes, not politics. For four years one of the leading lights of that revolution, Cass Sunstein, as President Obama’s “Regulatory Czar,” oversaw the brilliant and successful effort to give every American a better government.
2015
The Paris Agreement. This legally binding international treaty on climate change was adopted by 196 Parties at COP 21 in Paris on December 12, 2015, and entered into force on 4 November 2016. Its goal is to limit global warming to below 2, preferably to 1.5 degrees Celsius, compared to pre-industrial levels.
Sustainable Development Goals. The SDGs were developed at the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 2012. The purpose was to create a set of global goals related to the environmental, political and economic challenges we face as humanity.
2019
Resilient Cities Catalyst. The mission is to help cities and communities create catalytic change to solve their most pressing challenges. Building on a legacy, RCC is an independent nonprofit organisation formed by members of the 100 Resilient Cities (100RC) leadership team, created to empower change in how cities plan and act.
Global Resilient Cities Network. The 100 Resilient Cities network continues its goals under the provisional name Global Resilient Cities Network (GRCN). The network is leading the global conversation on building resilient cities, or in other words, making cities resilient and future-proof, to accelerate climate action and social and economic resilience, among other things.
2020
About ‘Public Risk’. The Board of PRIMO Europe decides to choose for a precision in definition of ‘risk’. The diversity is on the use of this concept in the public domain is that huge that the association finds it necessary to choose a direction, such based on scientific research.
2022
Future Global Shocks. The European Parliament presents this report addressing risks and building capabilities for Europe in a contested world. It pleads for improving risk governance. It is about lessons learned from the coronavirus crisis, awareness of more risks to come and their interlinkages, and a strong response by working together.
The UK Government Resilience Framework. The professionalism and commitment of the people who contribute to the UK’s resilience is extraordinary, and we have a well-established framework for civil protection in the UK. But the last few years have exposed the need to build on these solid foundations and strengthen our resilience to prevent, mitigate, respond to and recover from the nation’s risks.
2023
AR6 Synthesis Report Climate Change. This IPCC report sharply focuses on the losses and damages we are already experiencing and will continue into the future, especially hitting the most vulnerable people and ecosystems. Taking the right action now could result in the transformational change essential for a sustainable, equitable world.
2025
The National Risk Register (NRR) by HM Government is the external version of the National Security Risk Assessment (NSRA), which is the government’s assessment of the most serious risks facing the UK. It provides the government’s updated assessment of the likelihood and potential impact of a broad range of risks that may directly affect the UK and its interests.
The first-ever United Nations Global Risk Report 2024 has been released, offering insights from over 1,100 experts and stakeholders on the most pressing global risks and the world’s preparedness to address them. The report, based on a global survey conducted in 2024, assesses the perceptions of these risks across societal, technological, economic, environmental, and political categories. It highlights the interconnectedness of these risks and emphasizes the need for a more united and multilateral approach to strengthen the world’s capacity to anticipate, adapt, and respond to future challenges, according to the report.
The Chronic Risks Analysis (CRA) is the UK Government’s first bespoke risk assessment for medium to long term risks. It complements the National Risk Register (NRR), which focuses on the UK’s most serious acute risks. The 26 chronic risks identified by the UK Government cover seven themes, spanning across Security, Technology and Cybersecurity, Geopolitical, Environmental, Societal, Biosecurity and Economic issues.
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